What 1920s Movement Renewed African American Culture in Art Music Literature Drama and Dance

African-American cultural motility in New York Urban center in the 1920s

Harlem Renaissance
Part of the Roaring Twenties
Three African-American women in Harlem during the Harlem Renaissance in 1925
Date	1918 – mid 1930s
Location	Harlem, New York City, Us and influences from Paris, France
Also known as	New Negro Movement
Participants	Various artists and social critics
Effect	Mainstream recognition of cultural developments and idea of New Negro

The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual and cultural revival of African American music, trip the light fantastic, art, fashion, literature, theater, politics and scholarship centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s. At the time, it was known every bit the "New Negro Movement", named subsequently The New Negro, a 1925 anthology edited by Alain Locke. The movement also included the new African American cultural expressions across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest U.s.a. affected past a renewed militancy in the general struggle for civil rights, combined with the Great Migration of African American workers fleeing the racist atmospheric condition of the Jim Crow Deep South,^[1] as Harlem was the last destination of the largest number of those who migrated n.

Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood, many francophone black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the movement,^[2] ^[iii] ^[4] ^[5] which spanned from about 1918 until the mid-1930s.^[6] Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature", as James Weldon Johnson preferred to phone call the Harlem Renaissance, took identify between 1924—when Opportunity: A Periodical of Negro Life hosted a political party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance—and 1929, the year of the stock-market crash and the beginning of the Smashing Depression. The Harlem Renaissance is considered to have been a rebirth of the African-American arts.^[vii] Many people^{[ who? ]} would argue that the Harlem Renaissance never ended and has continued to be an of import cultural forcefulness in the United States through the decades: from the historic period of stride piano jazz and dejection to the ages of bebop, rock and gyre, soul, disco and hip-hop.

Background

Until the end of the Civil State of war, the majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. During the Reconstruction Era, the emancipated African Americans, freedmen, began to strive for borough participation, political equality and economical and cultural self-conclusion. Presently after the end of the Civil State of war the Ku Klux Klan Human activity of 1871 gave rise to speeches past African-American Congressmen addressing this Neb.^[8] By 1875, sixteen African Americans had been elected and served in Congress and gave numerous speeches with their newfound civil empowerment.^[9]

The Ku Klux Klan Human activity of 1871 was followed past the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, part of Reconstruction legislation by Republicans. During the mid-to-late 1870s, racist whites organized in the Democratic Party launched a murderous campaign of racist terrorism to regain political power throughout the Due south. From 1890 to 1908, they proceeded to laissez passer legislation that disenfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites, trapping them without representation. They established white supremacist regimes of Jim Crow segregation in the S and i-party block voting behind southern Democrats.

Autonomous Party politicians (many having been former slaveowners and political and armed services leaders of the Confederacy) conspired to deny African Americans their exercise of civil and political rights by terrorizing black communities with lynch mobs and other forms of vigilante violence^[10] as well as by instituting a convict labor system that forced many thousands of African Americans back into unpaid labor in mines, on plantations, and on public works projects such every bit roads and levees. Convict laborers were typically subject to brutal forms of corporal punishment, overwork, and affliction from unsanitary conditions. Death rates were extraordinarily loftier.^[11] While a small number of African Americans were able to acquire country presently later on the Ceremonious War, most were exploited as sharecroppers.^[12] Whether sharecropping or on their own acreage, nigh of the black population was closely financially dependent on agriculture. This added another impetus for the Migration: The inflow of the boll weevil. The beetle somewhen came to waste 8% of the country's cotton yield annually and thus unduly impacted this function of America's citizenry.^[13] As life in the South became increasingly hard, African Americans began to migrate north in bully numbers.

Virtually of the future leading lights of what was to become known as the "Harlem Renaissance" movement arose from a generation that had memories of the gains and losses of Reconstruction after the Civil War. Sometimes their parents, grandparents – or they themselves – had been slaves. Their ancestors had sometimes benefited past paternal investment in cultural majuscule, including better-than-average instruction.

Many in the Harlem Renaissance were function of the early on 20th century Slap-up Migration out of the South into the African-American neighborhoods of the Northeast and Midwest. African Americans sought a meliorate standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the Caribbean who came to the United states hoping for a amend life. Uniting near of them was their convergence in Harlem.

Development

A silent brusk documentary on the Negro Creative person. Richmond Barthé working on Kalombwan (1934)

During the early on portion of the 20th century, Harlem was the destination for migrants from around the state, attracting both people from the Due south seeking work and an educated course who made the area a middle of civilization, besides as a growing "Negro" heart form. These people were looking for a fresh start in life and this was a expert place to go. The district had originally been adult in the 19th century as an sectional suburb for the white middle and upper center classes; its affluent beginnings led to the development of stately houses, grand avenues, and world-class amenities such as the Polo Grounds and the Harlem Opera Business firm. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late 19th century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the white middle form, who moved farther n.

Harlem became an African-American neighborhood in the early 1900s. In 1910, a large cake along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought past various African-American realtors and a church group.^[xiv] ^{[ citation needed ]} Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War. Due to the state of war, the migration of laborers from Europe well-nigh ceased, while the state of war endeavor resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities such every bit Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and New York.

Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, oft past more than recent ethnic immigrants, continued to affect African-American communities, even in the North.^[15] After the end of World State of war I, many African-American soldiers—who fought in segregated units such equally the Harlem Hellfighters—came dwelling house to a nation whose citizens oft did not respect their accomplishments.^[16] Race riots and other ceremonious uprisings occurred throughout the Usa during the Scarlet Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition over jobs and housing in many cities, besides as tensions over social territories.

Mainstream recognition of Harlem civilization

The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. In 1917, the premiere of Granny Maumee, The Passenger of Dreams, Simon the Cyrenian: Plays for a Negro Theater took identify. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African-American actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the greasepaint and minstrel testify traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays "the almost important single upshot in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theater".^[17]

Another landmark came in 1919, when the communist poet Claude McKay published his militant sonnet "If We Must Dice", which introduced a dramatically political dimension to the themes of African cultural inheritance and mod urban experience featured in his 1917 poems "Invocation" and "Harlem Dancer". Published nether the pseudonym Eli Edwards, these were his first appearance in impress in the United States after immigrating from Jamaica.^[xviii] Although "If Nosotros Must Dice" never alluded to race, African-American readers heard its notation of defiance in the face of racism and the nationwide race riots and lynchings then taking place. Past the end of the Outset World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the verse of Claude McKay were describing the reality of contemporary African-American life in America.

The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the African-American community since the abolition of slavery, as the expansion of communities in the Northward. These accelerated every bit a consequence of Earth War I and the great social and cultural changes in early 20th-century The states. Industrialization was attracting people to cities from rural areas and gave rise to a new mass civilisation. Contributing factors leading to the Harlem Renaissance were the Great Migration of African Americans to northern cities, which concentrated ambitious people in places where they could encourage each other, and the Start World War, which had created new industrial work opportunities for tens of thousands of people. Factors leading to the reject of this era include the Not bad Depression.

Literature

In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Male parent of Harlem Radicalism", founded the Freedom League and The Vocalisation, the first organization and the commencement paper, respectively, of the "New Negro Motion". Harrison'due south organisation and newspaper were political, merely also emphasized the arts (his paper had "Verse for the People" and book review sections). In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion overlooked "the stream of literary and creative products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said the so-chosen "renaissance" was largely a white invention.^{[ commendation needed ]} Alternatively, a writer like the Chicago-based author, Fenton Johnson. who began publishing in the early 1900s, is called a "forerunner" of the renaissance,^[19] ^[twenty] "one of the first negro revolutionary poets".^[21]

Nevertheless, with the Harlem Renaissance came a sense of acceptance for African-American writers; equally Langston Hughes put it, with Harlem came the courage "to limited our private night-skinned selves without fear or shame."^[22] Alain Locke'southward album The New Negro was considered the cornerstone of this cultural revolution.^[23] The anthology featured several African-American writers and poets, from the well-known, such as Zora Neale Hurston and communists Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, to the lesser-known, like the poet Anne Spencer.^[24]

Many poets of the Harlem Renaissance were inspired to tie in threads of African-American culture into their poems; as a result, jazz poesy was heavily developed during this time. "The Weary Dejection" was a notable jazz poem written past Langston Hughes.^[25] Through their works of literature, blackness authors were able to requite a vocalisation to the African-American identity, also equally strive for a community of support and credence.

Religion

Christianity played a major function in the Harlem Renaissance. Many of the writers and social critics discussed the role of Christianity in African-American lives. For example, a famous verse form past Langston Hughes, "Madam and the Minister", reflects the temperature and mood towards religion in the Harlem Renaissance.^[26] The embrace story for The Crisis magazine's publication in May 1936 explains how important Christianity was regarding the proposed union of the three largest Methodist churches of 1936. This commodity shows the controversial question of unification for these churches.^[27] The commodity "The Catholic Church building and the Negro Priest", besides published in The Crisis, January 1920, demonstrates the obstacles African-American priests faced in the Catholic Church. The article confronts what it saw as policies based on race that excluded African Americans from college positions in the church.^[28]

Discourse

Organized religion and Evolution Ad

Various forms of religious worship existed during this time of African-American intellectual reawakening. Although there were racist attitudes within the current Abrahamic religious arenas many African Americans connected to button towards the practice of a more than inclusive doctrine. For case, George Joseph MacWilliam presents various experiences, during his pursuit towards priesthood, of rejection on the basis of his colour and race yet he shares his frustration in attempts to incite action on the part of The Crisis mag community.^[28]

There were other forms of spiritualism skillful among African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance. Some of these religions and philosophies were inherited from African ancestry. For case, the faith of Islam was present in Africa as early every bit the 8th century through the Trans-Saharan trade. Islam came to Harlem likely through the migration of members of the Moorish Science Temple of America, which was established in 1913 in New Jersey.^{[ commendation needed ]} Diverse forms of Judaism were practiced, including Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform Judaism, but information technology was Black Hebrew Israelites that founded their religious belief system during the early 20th century in the Harlem Renaissance.^{[ citation needed ]} Traditional forms of religion acquired from diverse parts of Africa were inherited and skilful during this era. Some mutual examples were Voodoo and Santeria.^{[ citation needed ]}

Criticism

Religious critique during this era was institute in music, literature, art, theater and poetry. The Harlem Renaissance encouraged analytic dialogue that included the open critique and the adjustment of current religious ideas.

One of the major contributors to the discussion of African-American renaissance culture was Aaron Douglas who, with his artwork, also reflected the revisions African Americans were making to the Christian dogma. Douglas uses biblical imagery as inspiration to various pieces of art work but with the rebellious twist of an African influence.^[29]

Countee Cullen's poem "Heritage" expresses the inner struggle of an African American between his past African heritage and the new Christian culture.^[30] A more severe criticism of the Christian religion tin can be found in Langston Hughes' verse form "Merry Christmas", where he exposes the irony of faith as a symbol for expert and even so a force for oppression and injustice.^[31]

Music

A new way of playing the piano called the Harlem Stride style was created during the Harlem Renaissance, and helped blur the lines between the poor African Americans and socially elite African Americans. The traditional jazz band was composed primarily of brass instruments and was considered a symbol of the south, but the piano was considered an musical instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, the wealthy African Americans at present had more admission to jazz music. Its popularity presently spread throughout the country and was consequently at an all-time high.

Innovation and liveliness were important characteristics of performers in the beginnings of jazz. Jazz performers and composers at the time such as Eubie Blake, Noble Sissle, Jelly Gyre Morton, Luckey Roberts, James P. Johnson, Willie "The King of beasts" Smith, Andy Razaf, Fats Waller, Ethel Waters, Adelaide Hall,^[32] Florence Mills and bandleaders Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong and Fletcher Henderson were extremely talented, adept, competitive and inspirational. They are still considered equally having laid great parts of the foundations for hereafter musicians of their genre.^[33] ^[34] ^[35]

Knuckles Ellington gained popularity during the Harlem Renaissance. According to Charles Garrett, "The resulting portrait of Ellington reveals him to be not only the gifted composer, bandleader, and musician nosotros have come to know, but also an earthly person with bones desires, weaknesses, and eccentricities."^[seven] Ellington did not allow his popularity get to him. He remained at-home and focused on his music.

During this period, the musical manner of blacks was becoming more than and more attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their works. Composers (including William Grant Nevertheless, William 50. Dawson and Florence Price) used poems written by African-American poets in their songs, and would implement the rhythms, harmonies and melodies of African-American music—such as blues, spirituals, and jazz—into their concert pieces. African Americans began to merge with Whites into the classical world of musical composition. The first African-American male to proceeds wide recognition as a concert artist in both his region and internationally was Roland Hayes. He trained with Arthur Calhoun in Chattanooga, and at Fisk University in Nashville. Subsequently, he studied with Arthur Hubbard in Boston and with George Henschel and Amanda Ira Aldridge in London, England. He began singing in public as a pupil, and toured with the Fisk Jubilee Singers in 1911.^[36]

Musical theatre

Affiche for Run, Little Chillun

According to James Vernon Hatch and Leo Hamalian, all-Black review Run, Little Chillun is considered one of the most successful musical dramas of the Harlem Renaissance.^[37]

Fashion

During the Harlem Renaissance, the black clothing scene took a dramatic turn from the prim and proper. Many young women preferred- from short skirts and silk stockings to drop-waisted dresses and cloche hats.^[38] Woman wore loose-fitted garments and accessorized with long strand pearl bead necklaces, feather boas, and cigarette holders. The way of the Harlem Renaissance was used to convey elegance and flamboyancy and needed to be created with the vibrant dance mode of the 1920s in heed.^[39] Pop by the 1930s was a trendy, egret-trimmed beret.

Men wore loose suits that led to the later style known as the "Zoot", which consisted of wide-legged, loftier-waisted, peg-superlative trousers, and a long coat with padded shoulders and broad lapels. Men also wore broad-brimmed hats, colored socks,^[40] white gloves, and velvet-collared Chesterfield coats. During this menses, African Americans expressed respect for their heritage through a fad for leopard-skin coats, indicating the ability of the African animal.

The extraordinarily successful black dancer Josephine Bakery, though performing in Paris during the elevation of the Renaissance, was a major fashion trendsetter for blackness and white women alike. Her gowns from the couturier Jean Patou were much copied, especially her stage costumes, which Vogue magazine called "startling". Josephine Bakery is besides credited for highlighting the "fine art deco" fashion era after she performed the "Danse Sauvage". During this Paris functioning she adorned a skirt made of cord and artificial bananas. Ethel Moses was another pop blackness performer, Moses starred in silent films in the 1920s and 30s and was recognizable by her signature bob hairstyle.

Characteristics and themes

Trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie is emblematic of the mixture of high class society, popular art, and virtuosity of jazz.

Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the New Negro, who through intellect and production of literature, fine art, and music could challenge the pervading racism and stereotypes to promote progressive or socialist politics, and racial and social integration. The cosmos of art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race.

There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged from the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, information technology encompassed a broad variety of cultural elements and styles, including a Pan-African perspective, "high-culture" and "low-culture" or "low-life", from the traditional course of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature such as modernism and the new form of jazz verse. This duality meant that numerous African-American artists came into conflict with conservatives in the blackness intelligentsia, who took issue with certain depictions of black life.

Some mutual themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African-American folk traditions on black identity, the furnishings of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North.

The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African-American interest. It rested on a support organisation of black patrons, blackness-endemic businesses and publications. Even so, information technology also depended on the patronage of white Americans, such every bit Carl Van Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Stonemason, who provided various forms of help, opening doors which otherwise might have remained closed to the publication of work outside the black American community. This support ofttimes took the grade of patronage or publication. Carl Van Vechten was one of the most noteworthy white Americans involved with the Harlem Renaissance. He immune for assistance to the black American community because he wanted racial sameness.

There were other whites interested in so-called "primitive" cultures, as many whites viewed blackness American culture at that time, and wanted to see such "primitivism" in the piece of work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. Every bit with almost fads, some people may have been exploited in the blitz for publicity.

Interest in African-American lives also generated experimental but lasting collaborative work, such every bit the all-black productions of George Gershwin's opera Porgy and Bess, and Virgil Thomson and Gertrude Stein's 4 Saints in Three Acts. In both productions the choral conductor Eva Jessye was part of the artistic team. Her choir was featured in Four Saints.^[41] The music world also plant white band leaders defying racist attitudes to include the all-time and the brightest African-American stars of music and song in their productions.

The African Americans used fine art to prove their humanity and need for equality. The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to exist published by mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction attracted a peachy corporeality of attending from the nation at large. Amongst authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Locke, Omar Al Amiri, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes.

Richard Bruce Nugent (1906–1987) who wrote "Smoke, Lilies, and Jade" is an important contribution, especially in relation to experimental form and LGBT themes in the period.^[42]

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the postal service-World State of war II protest movement of the Ceremonious Rights movement. Moreover, many blackness artists who rose to artistic maturity afterward were inspired by this literary movement.

The Renaissance was more than than a literary or artistic movement, as it possessed a certain sociological evolution—especially through a new racial consciousness—through ethnic pride, equally seen in the Back to Africa movement led by Jamaican Marcus Garvey. At the same time, a different expression of ethnic pride, promoted by W. Eastward. B. Du Bois, introduced the notion of the "talented 10th". Du Bois' wrote of the Talented Tenth:

The Negro race, like all races, is going to exist saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education, then, amidst Negroes must first of all bargain with the Talented Tenth; information technology is the problem of developing the all-time of this race that they may guide the mass away from the contagion and death of the worst.^[43]

These "talented tenth" were considered the finest examples of the worth of black Americans as a response to the rampant racism of the flow. No detail leadership was assigned to the talented tenth, but they were to be emulated. In both literature and pop word, complex ideas such equally Du Bois's concept of "twoness" (dualism) were introduced (see The Souls of Black Folk; 1903).^[44] Du Bois explored a divided awareness of i's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This exploration was later revived during the Black Pride movement of the early 1970s.

Influence

A new Black identity

The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the Black experience clearly within the corpus of American cultural history. Not only through an explosion of culture, but on a sociological level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance redefined how America, and the world, viewed African Americans. The migration of southern Blacks to the northward changed the image of the African American from rural, undereducated peasants to 1 of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity led to a greater social consciousness, and African Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.

The progress—both symbolic and real—during this period became a point of reference from which the African-American community gained a spirit of self-determination that provided a growing sense of both Black urbanity and Black militancy, as well as a foundation for the customs to build upon for the Civil Rights struggles in the 1950s and 1960s.

The urban setting of speedily developing Harlem provided a venue for African Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the variety of Blackness life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the artistic and intellectual imagination, which freed Blacks from the institution of past status. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity.

However, in that location was some pressure within certain groups of the Harlem Renaissance to prefer sentiments of bourgeois white America in order to exist taken seriously by the mainstream. The upshot being that queer civilization, while far-more accepted in Harlem than most places in the country at the time, was most fully lived out in the smoky dark lights of confined, nightclubs, and cabarets in the city.^[45] It was inside these venues that the blues music scene boomed, and since it had not yet gained recognition within pop civilisation, queer artists used it as a mode to express themselves honestly.^[45]

Even though there were factions inside the Renaissance that were accepting of queer culture/lifestyles, 1 could still exist arrested for engaging in homosexual acts. Many people, including author Alice Dunbar Nelson and "The Female parent of Blues" Gertrude "Ma" Rainey,^[46] had husbands only were romantically linked to other women also.^[47]

Ma Rainey was known to dress in traditionally male article of clothing and her dejection lyrics often reflected her sexual proclivities for women, which was extremely radical at the time. Ma Rainey was too the get-go person to introduce blues music into vaudeville.^[48] Rainey's protégé, Bessie Smith was another artist who used the blues equally a fashion to express herself with such lines as "When you see ii women walking paw in hand, simply expect em' over and effort to understand: They'll go to those parties – take the lights downwards low – just those parties where women can get."^[45]

Another prominent blues singer was Gladys Bentley, who was known to cross-clothes. Bentley was the order owner of Clam House on 133rd Street in Harlem, which was a hub for queer patrons. The Hamilton Lodge in Harlem hosted an annual drag brawl that attracted thousands to sentry as a couple hundred immature men came to trip the light fantastic toe the night away in elevate. Though there were safe havens within Harlem, there were prominent voices such as that of Abyssinian Baptist Church'southward government minister Adam Clayton who actively campaigned against homosexuality.^[47]

The Harlem Renaissance gave birth to the thought of The New Negro. The New Negro movement was an try to define what it meant to be African-American by African Americans rather than let the degrading stereotypes and caricatures found in black confront minstrelsy practices to do so. In that location was as well The Neo-New Negro motility, which not only challenged racial definitions and stereotypes, but too sought to claiming gender roles, normative sexuality, and sexism in America in general. In this respect, the Harlem Renaissance was far ahead of the rest of America in terms of embracing feminism and queer civilisation.^[49]

These ideals received some button back as freedom of sexuality, peculiarly pertaining to women (which during the time in Harlem was known every bit women-loving women),^[46] was seen as confirming the stereotype that black women were loose and lacked sexual discernment. The black bourgeoisie saw this as hampering the cause of black people in America and giving fuel to the fire of racist sentiments around the state. Yet for all of the efforts by both sectors of white and conservative blackness America, queer culture and artists divers major portions of not only the Harlem Renaissance, but also define so much of our civilization today. Writer of "The Blackness Human'due south Burden", Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote that the Harlem Renaissance "was surely equally gay as it was black".^[49]

Criticism of the movement

Many critics indicate out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its history and culture in its attempt to create a new 1, or sufficiently split up from the foundational elements of White, European culture. Oftentimes Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new racial consciousness, resorted to mimicry of their white counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This "mimicry" may likewise exist called assimilation, as that is typically what minority members of whatever social construct must do in order to fit social norms created by that construct'due south majority.^[fifty] This could be seen as a reason that the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of White-American values, and did non reject these values.^{[ citation needed ]} In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro" as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a success.^{[ by whom? ]}

The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The literature appealed to the African-American heart grade and to whites. Magazines such every bit The Crisis, a monthly periodical of the NAACP, and Opportunity, an official publication of the National Urban League, employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs; published poetry and short stories by black writers; and promoted African-American literature through articles, reviews, and annual literary prizes. As of import as these literary outlets were, however, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines.^[51]

A major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. West. Eastward. B. Du Bois did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such as Claude McKay's bestselling novel Home to Harlem (1928) for appealing to the "prurient demand[southward]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness".^[51]

Langston Hughes spoke for virtually of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926) that blackness artists intended to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.^[52] Hughes in his writings also returned to the theme of racial passing, but during the Harlem Renaissance, he began to explore the topic of homosexuality and homophobia. He began to employ disruptive linguistic communication in his writings. He explored this topic because it was a theme that during this time menses was not discussed.^[53]

African-American musicians and writers were among mixed audiences as well, having experienced positive and negative outcomes throughout the New Negro Motion. For musicians, Harlem, New York'south cabarets and nightclubs shined a light on blackness performers and allowed for black residents to enjoy music and dancing. Even so, some of the most popular clubs (that showcased black musicians) were exclusively for white audiences; one of the most famous white-only nightclubs in Harlem was the Cotton fiber Club, where popular black musicians like Duke Ellington frequently performed.^[54] Ultimately, the black musicians who appeared at these white-just clubs became far more successful and became a part of the mainstream music scene.^{[ citation needed ]}

Similarly, black writers were given the opportunity to shine once the New Negro Motility gained traction as brusque stories, novels, and poems by black authors began taking form and getting into various impress publications in the 1910s and 1920s.^[55] Although a seemingly good way to found their identities and culture, many authors note how difficult it was for any of their work to really go anywhere. Writer Charles Chesnutt in 1877, for example, notes that there was no indication of his race alongside his publication in Atlantic Monthly (at the publisher's request).^[56]

A prominent factor in the New Negro'due south struggle was that their work had been made out to exist "dissimilar" or "exotic" to white audiences, making a necessity for blackness writers to appeal to them and compete with each other to become their work out.^[55] Famous black author and poet Langston Hughes explained that blackness-authored works were placed in a similar style to those of oriental or foreign origin, only being used occasionally in comparison to their white-made counterparts: once a spot for a black work was "taken", blackness authors had to look elsewhere to publish.^[56]

Sure aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accepted without debate, and without scrutiny. One of these was the future of the "New Negro". Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed American progressivism in its organized religion in democratic reform, in its belief in fine art and literature as agents of modify, and in its about uncritical belief in itself and its future. This progressivist worldview rendered Black intellectuals—just similar their White counterparts—unprepared for the rude stupor of the Great Depression, and the Harlem Renaissance concluded abruptly because of naive assumptions about the centrality of civilisation, unrelated to economic and social realities.^[57]

Works associated with the Harlem Renaissance

Blackbirds of 1928
Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance (book)
The New Negro: The Life of Alain Locke
Shuffle Along, musical
Untitled (The Birth), painting
Voodoo (opera)
When Washington Was in Vogue
The Negro in Art
Taboo (1922 play)
There'll Exist Some Changes Made

Meet besides

Blackness Arts Movement, 1960s and 1970s
Black Renaissance in D.C.
Chicago Black Renaissance
List of female person entertainers of the Harlem Renaissance
Listing of notable figures from the Harlem Renaissance
New Negro
Niggerati
William E. Harmon Foundation award
Cotton fiber Order, nightclub

General:

Roaring Twenties
African-American fine art
African-American culture
African-American literature
List of African-American visual artists

Notes and references

Notes

^ "NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom" Archived 1 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Library of Congress.
^ "Harlem in the Jazz Age", New York Times, 8 February 1987.
^ Cotter, Holland, "ART; A 1920s Flowering That Didn't Disappear", New York Times, 24 May 1998.
^ Danica Kirka, Jcu.edu Archived 10 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Kirka, Danica (i January 1995). "Los Angeles Times Interview : Dorothy West : A Voice of Harlem Renaissance Talks of Past--Simply Values the Now". Los Angeles Times.
^ Hutchinson, George, "Harlem Renaissance", Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ ^a ^b "Project MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Example of Countee Cullen." Projection MUSE – Modernism, Mass Culture, and the Harlem Renaissance: The Case of Countee Cullen. N.p., n.d. Spider web. iv April 2015.
^ "Speeches of African-American Representatives Addressing the Ku Klux Klan Nib of 1871" (PDF). NYU Police force.
^ Cooper Davis, Peggy. "Neglected Voices". NYU Law.
^ Woods, Clyde (1998). Development Arrested . New York and London: Verso. ISBN9781859848111.
^ Blackmon, Douglas A. (2009). Slavery By Some other Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World State of war II. Anchor.
^ Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America'south Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Harper Collins.
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References

Amos, Shawn, compiler. Rhapsodies in Black: Words and Music of the Harlem Renaissance. Los Angeles: Rhinoceros Records, 2000. four Meaty Discs.
Andrews, William 50.; Frances S. Foster; Trudier Harris, eds. The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4028-9296-9
Bean, Annemarie. A Sourcebook on African-American Functioning: Plays, People, Movements. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. vii + 360.
Greaves, William documentary From These Roots.
Hicklin, Fannie Ella Frazier. 'The American Negro Playwright, 1920–1964.' PhD Dissertation, Department of Speech, University of Wisconsin, 1965. Ann Arbor: Academy Microfilms 65-6217.
Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-19-501665-3
Hughes, Langston. The Big Sea. New York: Knopf, 1940.
Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Blackness and White. New York: Belknap Printing, 1997. ISBN 0-674-37263-8
Lewis, David Levering, ed. The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader. New York: Viking Penguin, 1995. ISBN 0-xiv-017036-vii
Lewis, David Levering. When Harlem Was in Vogue. New York: Penguin, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026334-ix
Ostrom, Hans. A Langston Hughes Encyclopedia. Westport: Greenwood Printing, 2002.
Ostrom, Hans and J. David Macey, eds. The Greenwood Encylclopedia of African American Literature. 5 volumes. Westport: Greenwood Printing, 2005.
Patton, Venetria Thou. and Maureen Honey, eds. Double-Take: A Revisionist Harlem Renaissance Anthology. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2006.
Perry, Jeffrey B. A Hubert Harrison Reader. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2001.
Perry, Jeffrey B. Hubert Harrison: The Vocalisation of Harlem Radicalism, 1883–1918. New York: Columbia Academy Printing, 2008.
Powell, Richard, and David A. Bailey, eds. Rhapsodies in Black: Art of the Harlem Renaissance. Berkeley: Academy of California Press, 1997.
Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. 2 volumes. New York: Oxford University Printing, 1986 and 1988.
Robertson, Stephen, et al., "Disorderly Houses: Residences, Privacy, and the Surveillance of Sexuality in 1920s Harlem," Journal of the History of Sexuality, 21 (September 2012), 443–66.
Soto, Michael, ed. Education The Harlem Renaissance. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
Tracy, Steven C. Langston Hughes and the Blues. Urbana: Academy of Illinois Press, 1988.
Watson, Steven. The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Civilisation, 1920–1930. New York: Pantheon Books, 1995. ISBN 0-679-75889-five
Williams, Iain Cameron. "Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall". Continuum Int. Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0826458939
Wintz, Cary D. Black Culture and the Harlem Renaissance. Houston: Rice Academy Press, 1988.
Wintz, Cary D. Harlem Speaks: A Living History of the Harlem Renaissance. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2007

External links

"A Guide to Harlem Renaissance Materials", from the Library of Congress
Bryan Carter (ed.). "Virtual Harlem". University of Illinois at Chicago, Electronic Visualization Laboratory.
"The Budgeted 100th Anniversary of the Harlem Renaissance", by 60 minutes historian Aberjhani
Underneath A Harlem Moon by Iain Cameron Williams ISBN 0-8264-5893-9
I'd Like to Testify You Harlem – past Rollin Lynde Hartt, The Contained, Apr, 1921
Drove: "Artists of the Harlem Renaissance" from the Academy of Michigan Museum of Art

meekinsimed1954.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance#:~:text=The%20Harlem%20Renaissance%20was%20an,spanning%20the%201920s%20and%201930s.